Kattara for comments

[Jim McDougall]

Hi Ibrahiim,
I agree that we have pretty much reached the point where we obviously need more key information that would offer clues to enable our moving further, but I am really glad we have been able to move this far. You;re right that information from either museums or academic institutions in Oman, Zanzibar and Mali might have more revealing data.

I agree also that the Razha is strongly associated with the long kattara and that the spatulate tip is indicative of the type of sweeping, slashing cuts used in wielding these swords. I have always thought it interesting that this feature is characteristic on the takouba of the Sahara, while its cousin, the broadsword kaskara in Sudan uses a spear type point.

More needs to be learned on the chronological history and development of the Razha, and if it can be determined culturally where it is likely to have come from. Burton suggests the Thracians, but then, was this the same type dance? More research needed as always, but very much enjoying discussing this with you!

All the best,
Jim

[Ibrahiim al Balooshi]

Originally Posted by Jim McDougall

Hi Ibrahiim,
I agree that we have pretty much reached the point where we obviously need more key information that would offer clues to enable our moving further, but I am really glad we have been able to move this far. You;re right that information from either museums or academic institutions in Oman, Zanzibar and Mali might have more revealing data.

I agree also that the Razha is strongly associated with the long kattara and that the spatulate tip is indicative of the type of sweeping, slashing cuts used in wielding these swords. I have always thought it interesting that this feature is characteristic on the takouba of the Sahara, while its cousin, the broadsword kaskara in Sudan uses a spear type point.

More needs to be learned on the chronological history and development of the Razha, and if it can be determined culturally where it is likely to have come from. Burton suggests the Thracians, but then, was this the same type dance? More research needed as always, but very much enjoying discussing this with you!

All the best,
Jim

Jim McDougall.
Salaams,
I have almost completed my initial research on Omani Folklore and have unearthed some fairly spectacular information. I propose to publish this to you as soon as I can and certainly inside the next few days. Not to put too fine a point on it (no pun intended) most people would fall over laughing if someone suggested that the Omani Kattara was 10th century and folks would fall off their chairs if it was shown to be 7th .... The implications of such a story and the potential relationship with the Omani Short Battle Sword are mind boggling.
Please allow me a few days to generate the paper.

Ibrahiim Al Balooshi.

[Jim McDougall]

Originally Posted by Ibrahiim al Balooshi

Jim McDougall.
Salaams,
I have almost completed my initial research on Omani Folklore and have unearthed some fairly spectacular information. I propose to publish this to you as soon as I can and certainly inside the next few days. Not to put too fine a point on it (no pun intended) most people would fall over laughing if someone suggested that the Omani Kattara was 10th century and folks would fall off their chairs if it was shown to be 7th .... The implications of such a story and the potential relationship with the Omani Short Battle Sword are mind boggling.
Please allow me a few days to generate the paper.

Ibrahiim Al Balooshi.

Hi Ibrahiim,
This is most exciting news, and I know you have been probing this subject deeply. As you note there may be some consternation with assessing such early period for these swords mostly associated with relatively modern times in the Omani sphere of influence, however supported theory can be very compelling. It is wonderful that you have taken such a serious approach to the study of the development of these fascinating weapons, and I am really looking forward to your work !!

All the very best,
Jim

[Ibrahiim al Balooshi]

Originally Posted by Jim McDougall

Hi Ibrahiim,
This is most exciting news, and I know you have been probing this subject deeply. As you note there may be some consternation with assessing such early period for these swords mostly associated with relatively modern times in the Omani sphere of influence, however supported theory can be very compelling. It is wonderful that you have taken such a serious approach to the study of the development of these fascinating weapons, and I am really looking forward to your work !!

All the very best,
Jim

Jim McDougall.

Salaams,
By way of introduction I intend to show the origin and date of the Omani Long Kattara and the relationship with Omani Short Battle Sword. I intend to prove that both weapons stem from the same concept and that the two are branches of the same sword from the late 7th Century AD. In so doing I also intend to show that the original Long Kattara was exported to Saudia where it froze as a design and can in fact be viewed at Michael Blalocks excellent pictures of it in a Riyadh Souk and at a Yemeni Museum on Arabian Swords #1.

My main research into Omani Folklore; specifically focusses upon the traditional music, poetry and dance of Oman and my main reference is www.octm-folk.gov.om/meng/rhythem.asp I have avoided putting it as a footnote as it runs on to many pages.

Oman adopted Islam in the late 7th century and within a very short term had modified its style following that of the Ibadi Islamic structure. Religious linkage with traditional Omani music is well known and the first layer or strata of music(the most important) and dance celebrates this. This "genre" of music at the start of Omani Islamic adoption is called the FUNUN.

In celebration of the memorable annual dates in the Islamic calendar, in particular the two Eid periods and at weddings, certain fixed ritual music and dance patterns emerged. One group of dances accompanied by music, especially drums, was the Razha. "The Sword Dance".

There are several subcategories of Omani Long Kattara sword dance display. The first is with the swords (without shields) paraded in front of the onlookers. Performers swagger to the drumbeat occasionally tossing their swords high in the air and catching them clean by the hilt whilst others leap in the air causing the swords to buzz by clever flick of the wrists. The second form is where two performers mimic a swordfight using Kattara and Buckler Shield urged on by the drums ..The aim being to touch the opponents thumb though in the event of no result a third referee cuts the air between the opponents with his sword to end the set.

The importance of music dance and poetry cannot be over emphasised since it has grown to scores of different performances reflecting sea exploration, trade and war with far off lands~ indeed Oman was trading with the Chinese in the mid 7th Century and later with the west coast of India (Malibar coast) and Africa as well as Persia and its close neighbors. The different genres within traditional music dance and poetry of Oman reflect these occurences and the different beat and tone as well as the dance indicate the provenance like a fingerprint so that you can see where the influence is say, Portuguese or tribal African or a seagoing episode or camel journeying. Each belongs to a separate volume, strata or genre but vitally they are all passed down from generation to generation illustrating the history and lives of Oman before. What is peculiar about the forms is that each has a totally different beat like a fingerprint which makes each performance traceable as each set of music is so unique. Music is after all a mathematical sequence. Different regions Mussandam or Salalah for example have separate genres like tha Jebali Khanjar dance for example.

However The Razha is in the Funun and the Funun was the first and most important of the music and dance traditions cemented around the newly adopted Islamic religion in the late 7th Century. The sword and shield used in the Razha are the Long Kattara and Terrs.

This traditional body of work of Omani poetry, music and dance are very much alive today having been passed down the line for 1300 years.

Please view Michael Blalocks excellent pictures of a sword in a Riyadh Souk and at a Yemeni Museum "posted on Arabian Swords #1".
You may also wish to see the pictures previously put by me of the Omani Short Battle Sword to compare hilts. Plus you may also note the rounded spatula tip in Michaels picture. Could this be related?

In my previous script you will note that I attached the Omani Short Battle Sword as a development of the Abbasid sword being used against Oman in the 7th and 8th Centuries by the Garrison from Baghdad in Oman. In that post I pointed out that the hilt was a celebration of the adoption of Ibadi Islam and I believe it is almost identical to the Long hilt in #1

I believe that there were two swords and both evolved with a similar hilt but with different blades at about the same time. The Short and The Long. Two different swords for two different purposes The short for close infighting possibly with a big shield (now lost)... and the Long for use with the Terrs . Interestingly the Omanis still call both swords by the same name (Kattara). I believe that the Long Kattara eventually superceded the Short simply because it was more popular in its secondary role in traditional celebrations..though it can be proven that both weapons(and others) were iconic badges of office until now. Anyway there were plenty of places the short weapon was good for.. on board ship... in fortresses and amongst fortified villages...The long sword better in the wide open spaces.. The two swords continued to be used for many centuries side by side.

It has to be remembered that for centuries Oman was essentially two countries or one country at war with itself i.e. The Interior versus the Coastal Belt. Even in the mid 20th Century it was still known as Muscat and Oman ! Muscat was capital on the Coast whilst the seat of power in the interior was at Nizwa which as it happens was also the centre for Ibadi Islam.


Trade from the interior was with the rest of Arabia etc through the empty quarter in what is now Saudi Arabia, though then, in the early days, it was all one big massive tribal jigsaw puzzle. Trade in swords, slaves, dates and other products from Nizwa to Arabia by camel caravans would have been standard practise as no trade would have been possible with Muscat. Export and technical freezing of the original Long Kattara as seen at the reference could easily have happened and what we see today in that photo is I believe the Omani Long Kattara in near original form.

So what happened to the Long Kattara hilt? It evolved.. not in Saudia but in Oman. Perhaps the jolting in both its uses as a dance weapon and as a fighting weapon the old handle was prone to breaking apart. Certainly the degree of vibration up into the cruder handle on the #1 Long Kattara would be substantial and as sword making became more modernised the technical ability to make a sword tang and pommel as one piece simply hatched. Timescale?.. The transition to conical hilt? I have no idea but even as late as the introduction of European trade blades.. and so the old handle was simply superceded.

In conclusion I argue that both the Omani Long and Short Kattara are two branches of the same weapon which evolved in the late 7th Century and used in the interior (Dhakiliya) against the Coast of Oman and in support of the Ibadi religious seat which retained the music and Ibadi dance traditions until today. The Razha ( Sword Dance ) is part of the Funun and the two can be date matched to the start of Islam in Oman. I further argue that the virtually identical sword hilt at #1 to the Omani Short speaks volumes and that it is the original Omani Long Kattara frozen in time having been exported centuries ago.

Regards,

Ibrahiim Al Balooshi.

[Ibrahiim al Balooshi]

Note to Forum.
Comparison with Topkapi Museum Abbasid Sword and Omani Short Battle Sword under discussion currently and argued by me as 7TH / 8th C.

Salaams,
I happen to be restoring an Omani Short Battle Sword and I realised that I had missed a characteristic repeated on both swords (Abbasid Sword and Omani Short Battle Sword) and placed on the Forum earlier by me outlining 10 similarities in the two swords :

I believe this is similar characteristic~

no 11. Both handles are octagonal in cross section.

Can this vital point be added to my original letter outlining the similarities please perhaps as a footnote or as advised by Moderator Staff.

Shukran,
Regards Ibrahiim Al Balooshi.

[Jim McDougall]

Hi Ibrahiim,
I have been completely intrigued by your writing on this in what I consider absolutely superb scholarship in presenting theory and support concerning these variations of the Omani 'kattara'.
I have also added your excellent observation concerning the octagonal cross section in the hilts on many of the earlier examples to the itemized list of points in your earlier post as requested. I would like to note here that the domed pommel on these is remarkably similar to some minarets as seen in the Mosque of al-Hakim in Cairo (attachment below). One of the prevalent characteristics of hilt construction in many instances is compellingly associated with architectural features of these kinds of religious structures.
Regarding your note on the octagonal cross section, many minarets and elements of structure in mosques have eight sided features.

One of the most pleasing and rewarding aspects of our discourse on studying these swords is that it perfectly illustrates the importance of considering so many ancillary aspects in the way we look at them. With the sword obviously being a combat weapon, many would wonder what in the world would dancing amd music have to do with this? As you have well shown, the anthropology of these dance traditions, and in particular the rhythms with drums that accompany them, not only preserve these traditions, but have well served as martially oriented honing of skills in handling these weapons.

Much in the way that hunting often served not only the important purpose of supplying food, which kepts skills with weapons at optimum levels, these kinds of martial 'dances' were actually a kind of training exercise in my view.
Being familiar with the weight and balance of a weapon, and perfecting instinctively reactive movements using them seems of course well placed, and essential at combat skills. It has long been known how important music and accompanying movements have been since earliest times, even to the shamanistic rituals of prehistory. The rhythmic beat of drums and certain other instruments carrying melodic accompaniment certainly has dramatic impact in psychotropic perspective, as well as chants, singing, etc. and the link to the Omani funun you attached is fascinating.

As I mentioned earlier, it is I think most important to go sort of 'long form' is describing these weapons as we discuss them, although the seemingly more general term 'kattara' of course applies generally. I agree that the short battle sword likely was developed and maintained in the inland sectors of Oman. These regions were as previously mentioned, notably conservative and distinct adherents of the Ibadi sect of Islam, and which appears to have evolved just a short time after the death of the Prophet Mohammed in 632C.E. The Ibadiyya seems to have extended into Zanzibar and regions in East and North Africa

The development of these short battle swords are most likely as you suggest, developed from the Abbasid type swords, but the actual form as far as I have been able to find resources on, seems unclear. In "Islamic Swords and Swordsmiths", (the late Dr. Unsal Yucel, Istanbul, 1986.).. it is noted that no Abbasid hilts are known and he suggests they were probably closer in form to Mamluk/Syrian types of 14th c. (AD). He does note that some of the earliest Arab miniatures (c. 13th c. AD) reflect hilts having downturned quillons.

While trade contact with coastal regions in Muscat would have been prohibitive obviously for the tribal groups of interior Oman, as you note there were trade contacts in place into the Rub al Khali which connected to other parts of Arabia and Syria in network. With considerably more diverse external influences from many countries it would seem likely that the break from the more conservative weapon would take place in this context. The development of the cylindrical, sans quillons hilt it would seem to me would as you note probably be in accord with the Razha tradition as the longer unobstructed handle would lend well to the elaborate movements and catching the sword hilt.

The well established tradition of the blunt tip was from early times, where the thrust was not favored and chopping or slashing moves were used. The short heavy blade sabre forms you have described with the karabela style hilts and resembling cutlasses were of course more inclined to maritime use and the coastal trade regions in Muscat. These trade connections by sea to Yemen were likely how these were received as well as the manner the 'long kattara' form went to Yemen (as seem in Michaels post Arabian Swords 2009). It is indeed most interesting to see the vestiges of the interior (possibly we might designate these short battle swords of 'Nizwa' form?) style hilt on the example in the souk in Riyadh. I am not sure this represents a developmental form or a contemporary hybridization though. If more corroborating examples were found of course it would be more compelling. It is a captivating example and definitely worth following further though.
Seeing the old 'minaret' style pommel grafted to the collared and segmented shaft without the familiar drooping quillons is truly a tempting variation.

Regarding the leather covered examples of the 'shashka' type profile hilt which seem to be found with various blades, I think these are most likely Bedouin examples from varying contact tribes further into the Rub al Khali and along established routes. Through intertribal contact and trade these seem to be of a Bedouin type which extends throughout their territories throughout Arabia and into the Sinai regions.
The use of curved blades of course is favored as they are more pragmatically applied to mounted use.

This is truly a fascinating discussion Ibrahiim, and I hope we can keep looking more into these kattara, and your work is outstanding, Im truly learning a great deal here!!! and I thank you so much.

All the best,
Jim

[Ibrahiim al Balooshi]

Salaams,
I have a brief note to add as an advisory on a more precise date for the Omani Kattaras which I put more toward the end of the 8th Century A.D. since Oman adopted Islam in 630 A.D. however, it is the Ibadi sect we are concerned with and that only transpired in the early 8th Century AD.(about 710) Allowing for time to settle and inform the masses my estimate would be mid to late in the 8th C. My target date therefor is 751AD; Religion, tradition, swords and all. 751AD.
This date to be further supported in my next addition to the Forum expected later today.

Ibrahiim al Balooshi.
4/6/2011.

[Ibrahiim al Balooshi]

Originally Posted by Jim McDougall

Hi Ibrahiim,
I have been completely intrigued by your writing on this in what I consider absolutely superb scholarship in presenting theory and support concerning these variations of the Omani 'kattara'.
I have also added your excellent observation concerning the octagonal cross section in the hilts on many of the earlier examples to the itemized list of points in your earlier post as requested. I would like to note here that the domed pommel on these is remarkably similar to some minarets as seen in the Mosque of al-Hakim in Cairo (attachment below). One of the prevalent characteristics of hilt construction in many instances is compellingly associated with architectural features of these kinds of religious structures.
Regarding your note on the octagonal cross section, many minarets and elements of structure in mosques have eight sided features.

One of the most pleasing and rewarding aspects of our discourse on studying these swords is that it perfectly illustrates the importance of considering so many ancillary aspects in the way we look at them. With the sword obviously being a combat weapon, many would wonder what in the world would dancing amd music have to do with this? As you have well shown, the anthropology of these dance traditions, and in particular the rhythms with drums that accompany them, not only preserve these traditions, but have well served as martially oriented honing of skills in handling these weapons.

Much in the way that hunting often served not only the important purpose of supplying food, which kepts skills with weapons at optimum levels, these kinds of martial 'dances' were actually a kind of training exercise in my view.
Being familiar with the weight and balance of a weapon, and perfecting instinctively reactive movements using them seems of course well placed, and essential at combat skills. It has long been known how important music and accompanying movements have been since earliest times, even to the shamanistic rituals of prehistory. The rhythmic beat of drums and certain other instruments carrying melodic accompaniment certainly has dramatic impact in psychotropic perspective, as well as chants, singing, etc. and the link to the Omani funun you attached is fascinating.

As I mentioned earlier, it is I think most important to go sort of 'long form' is describing these weapons as we discuss them, although the seemingly more general term 'kattara' of course applies generally. I agree that the short battle sword likely was developed and maintained in the inland sectors of Oman. These regions were as previously mentioned, notably conservative and distinct adherents of the Ibadi sect of Islam, and which appears to have evolved just a short time after the death of the Prophet Mohammed in 632C.E. The Ibadiyya seems to have extended into Zanzibar and regions in East and North Africa

The development of these short battle swords are most likely as you suggest, developed from the Abbasid type swords, but the actual form as far as I have been able to find resources on, seems unclear. In "Islamic Swords and Swordsmiths", (the late Dr. Unsal Yucel, Istanbul, 1986.).. it is noted that no Abbasid hilts are known and he suggests they were probably closer in form to Mamluk/Syrian types of 14th c. (AD). He does note that some of the earliest Arab miniatures (c. 13th c. AD) reflect hilts having downturned quillons.

While trade contact with coastal regions in Muscat would have been prohibitive obviously for the tribal groups of interior Oman, as you note there were trade contacts in place into the Rub al Khali which connected to other parts of Arabia and Syria in network. With considerably more diverse external influences from many countries it would seem likely that the break from the more conservative weapon would take place in this context. The development of the cylindrical, sans quillons hilt it would seem to me would as you note probably be in accord with the Razha tradition as the longer unobstructed handle would lend well to the elaborate movements and catching the sword hilt.

The well established tradition of the blunt tip was from early times, where the thrust was not favored and chopping or slashing moves were used. The short heavy blade sabre forms you have described with the karabela style hilts and resembling cutlasses were of course more inclined to maritime use and the coastal trade regions in Muscat. These trade connections by sea to Yemen were likely how these were received as well as the manner the 'long kattara' form went to Yemen (as seem in Michaels post Arabian Swords 2009). It is indeed most interesting to see the vestiges of the interior (possibly we might designate these short battle swords of 'Nizwa' form?) style hilt on the example in the souk in Riyadh. I am not sure this represents a developmental form or a contemporary hybridization though. If more corroborating examples were found of course it would be more compelling. It is a captivating example and definitely worth following further though.
Seeing the old 'minaret' style pommel grafted to the collared and segmented shaft without the familiar drooping quillons is truly a tempting variation.

Regarding the leather covered examples of the 'shashka' type profile hilt which seem to be found with various blades, I think these are most likely Bedouin examples from varying contact tribes further into the Rub al Khali and along established routes. Through intertribal contact and trade these seem to be of a Bedouin type which extends throughout their territories throughout Arabia and into the Sinai regions.
The use of curved blades of course is favored as they are more pragmatically applied to mounted use.

This is truly a fascinating discussion Ibrahiim, and I hope we can keep looking more into these kattara, and your work is outstanding, Im truly learning a great deal here!!! and I thank you so much.

All the best,
Jim

Salaams, Jim.

Salaams,
Dear Jim, Thank you for your immediate and excellent reply. I wonder if I may reply using your text and answering each paragraph in blue?

I suspect that we have pushed the envelope on origins and dates of this sword group to the ultimate. Many theorists, authors and museums attribute the Long Omani Kattara to the 17th Century whilst the Short has even been suggested as 14th or recently quite daringly to the 10th Century AD almost without a reasoned proof. Placing both weapons as Ibadi Omani Islamic at inception demolishes previous guestimates. I am confident that the whole body of work will convince specialists and future authors, therefore, I request please, that you act for the Forum in presenting the situation correctly. Imagine the repercussions throughout the ethnographic arms world? They will be astonished._______________________________________ _
Hi Ibrahiim,
I have been completely intrigued by your writing on this in what I consider absolutely superb scholarship in presenting theory and support concerning these variations of the Omani 'kattara'.
I have also added your excellent observation concerning the octagonal cross section in the hilts on many of the earlier examples to the itemized list of points in your earlier post as requested. I would like to note here that the domed pommel on these is remarkably similar to some minarets as seen in the Mosque of al-Hakim in Cairo (attachment below). One of the prevalent characteristics of hilt construction in many instances is compellingly associated with architectural features of these kinds of religious structures.
Regarding your note on the octagonal cross section, many minarets and elements of structure in mosques have eight sided features.

Thank you for amending my hilt comparison list with the Omani Short Battle Sword and the Topkapi Abbasid Sword. Your observations are splendid and underscore the Islamic nature of the hilt. I note that some later hilts were copies and did not follow the octagonal approach but the sword I am restoring and many others I have handled I now realize are octagonal original style The domed Pommel of course is Islamic. The Islamic Arch. The turned down Quillons are not only aesthetic and possibly Islamic designs but completely practical. The Pommel not only a counter balance but a spike for close in combat. Intrigue is added by the rather odd collar however that makes practical sense so as to protect the guard and make a tight scabbard fit. Perhaps this weapon carried a shield and of similar form but bigger than the Terrs?

One of the most pleasing and rewarding aspects of our discourse on studying these swords is that it perfectly illustrates the importance of considering so many ancillary aspects in the way we look at them. With the sword obviously being a combat weapon, many would wonder what in the world would dancing amd music have to do with this? As you have well shown, the anthropology of these dance traditions, and in particular the rhythms with drums that accompany them, not only preserve these traditions, but have well served as martially oriented honing of skills in handling these weapons.

Even the local people couldn’t understand why I was examining music and dance!! The Razha certainly developed as a martial art exercise and was locked into the history as it was passed down unchanged through the ages. People couldn’t all read and write, therefore, passing down tradition through music dance and poetry was the method of transition.

Much in the way that hunting often served not only the important purpose of supplying food, which kepts skills with weapons at optimum levels, these kinds of martial 'dances' were actually a kind of training exercise in my view.
Being familiar with the weight and balance of a weapon, and perfecting instinctively reactive movements using them seems of course well placed, and essential at combat skills. It has long been known how important music and accompanying movements have been since earliest times, even to the shamanistic rituals of prehistory. The rhythmic beat of drums and certain other instruments carrying melodic accompaniment certainly has dramatic impact in psychotropic perspective, as well as chants, singing, etc. and the link to the Omani funun you attached is fascinating.

The vital point was attaching the Razha to the Funun and therefore a date as the adoption date of Islam in Oman. The key indicator was the small note in the British Viziers journal in 1931 at Zanzibar when he said that the sword dance, The Razha, was done by Omani not Zanzibari people.

As I mentioned earlier, it is I think most important to go sort of 'long form' is describing these weapons as we discuss them, although the seemingly more general term 'kattara' of course applies generally. I agree that the short battle sword likely was developed and maintained in the inland sectors of Oman. These regions were as previously mentioned, notably conservative and distinct adherents of the Ibadi sect of Islam, and which appears to have evolved just a short time after the death of the Prophet Mohammed in 632C.E. The Ibadiyya seems to have extended into Zanzibar and regions in East and North Africa

I agree that both kattara long and short went to the inland Ibadi half of Oman(in due course) and locked because of tradition and geographical isolation. From there the old long was exported or seeped into what is now Saudi Arabia and possibly Yemen.

The development of these short battle swords are most likely as you suggest, developed from the Abbasid type swords, but the actual form as far as I have been able to find resources on, seems unclear. In "Islamic Swords and Swordsmiths", (the late Dr. Unsal Yucel, Istanbul, 1986.).. it is noted that no Abbasid hilts are known and he suggests they were probably closer in form to Mamluk/Syrian types of 14th c. (AD). He does note that some of the earliest Arab miniatures (c. 13th c. AD) reflect hilts having downturned quillons.

Perhaps the Topkapi resource had not received the Abbasid sword by 1986? The Abbasid Garrison in Oman must have had that weapon.

The delicate question of precise date needs to be looked at. Oman did adopt Islam in 630 AD however Ibadi Islam did not fully take hold until a while after that. It was not until early in the 8th C that Ibadi religion was accepted. I think it fair to add some slip time before everything was functioning as an Ibadi state and the support structures of Islamic Instruction through missionaries (internal and external) plus learning doctrines, schools, mosques, etc were well founded. Therefore perhaps a fair date would be late 8th C. to early 9th C. Ibadiism plus weapons plus traditions. This allows for developments against the Abbasids and the key element of Ibadi religion as the driving force. It can be seen that: The first Ibadhi Imam, Julanda bin Mas'ud, was elected in 751 AD but that he was killed in battle and consolidation only occurred in 801.

To be fair to the first Ibadi Imam Julanda bin Mas'ud, I urge the new amended and consolidated date of 751 AD when he was elected as the most plausible date for the birth of both Kattara Swords. A second plausible and earlier date may exist because Jabr Ibn Zaid who was the first leader in the oman struggle had been in Iraq and would have seen the Abbasid swords and perhaps transmitted the technology to Oman when he arrived therefor an earlier date would be perhaps 730 AD

While trade contact with coastal regions in Muscat would have been prohibitive obviously for the tribal groups of interior Oman, as you note there were trade contacts in place into the Rub al Khali which connected to other parts of Arabia and Syria in network. With considerably more diverse external influences from many countries it would seem likely that the break from the more conservative weapon would take place in this context. The development of the cylindrical, sans quillons hilt it would seem to me would as you note probably be in accord with the Razha tradition as the longer unobstructed handle would lend well to the elaborate movements and catching the sword hilt.

(As a cautionary note it needs to be realized that although there was early turmoil with the Abbasids that after they left, Oman was one country for about 300 years before entering a disjointed period of war with itself on and off down the ages)

The flat cylindrical hilt on the long kattara (integral tang blade and pommel) and without quillons or collar developed in due course though when is beyond me. It could have come as late as the introduction of European trade blades. It is a diversion I suspect. The true original long kattara became frozen as an export to neighboring tribes now in Saudia (and possibly Yemen)

The well established tradition of the blunt tip was from early times, where the thrust was not favored and chopping or slashing moves were used. The short heavy blade sabre forms you have described with the karabela style hilts and resembling cutlasses were of course more inclined to maritime use and the coastal trade regions in Muscat. These trade connections by sea to Yemen were likely how these were received as well as the manner the 'long kattara' form went to Yemen (as seem in Michaels post Arabian Swords 2009). It is indeed most interesting to see the vestiges of the interior (possibly we might designate these short battle swords of 'Nizwa' form?) style hilt on the example in the souk in Riyadh. I am not sure this represents a developmental form or a contemporary hybridization though. If more corroborating examples were found of course it would be more compelling. It is a captivating example and definitely worth following further though.
Seeing the old 'minaret' style pommel grafted to the collared and segmented shaft without the familiar drooping quillons is truly a tempting variation.

I think the stretched hilt form shown in the Riyadh and Yemen museum picture is original in style though may contain some hybrid changes such as a tubular hilt cross section. I have handled two such swords in Muscat and have photos already put to the forum earlier. This seems to me to be the forerunner to the conical flat hilt. Flat spatula tips seem early and could pre-date Islam. As a cautionary note it needs to be realized that although there was early turmoil with the Abbasids that after they left, Oman was one country for about 300 years before entering a disjointed period of war with itself on and off down the ages. It is most probable that the swords transmitted throughout all of Oman at that time though the very strong Ibadi links were in the interior and remained so.


Regarding the leather covered examples of the 'shashka' type profile hilt which seem to be found with various blades, I think these are most likely Bedouin examples from varying contact tribes further into the Rub al Khali and along established routes. Through intertribal contact and trade these seem to be of a Bedouin type which extends throughout their territories throughout Arabia and into the Sinai regions.
The use of curved blades of course is favored as they are more pragmatically applied to mounted use.

I'm not sure if that is the case here. Short, curved, single edges are certainly ideal on board ships. I'm unclear as to what extent Oman used mounted infantry? What I do know is these swords are being made in Ras Al Khaimah today in that form therefore a maritime link is more likely in the case of Ras Al Khaimer at least?

This is truly a fascinating discussion Ibrahiim, and I hope we can keep looking more into these kattara, and your work is outstanding, Im truly learning a great deal here!!! and I thank you so much.


All the best,
Jim

Regards,
Ibrahiim al Balooshi.





Notes ; The majority of Omanis are Ibadhi Muslims, followers of Abd Allah ibn Ibad. This sector is closely followed by Sunni Muslims. The Shi'a minority live along Al Batinah and Muscat coasts. This minority includes the Al-Lawatis, the Bahranis of Bahrain descent, and the Ajam, of vague origin but generally considered to originate in Iran.
Many people think that Ibadism is an outgrowth of the Kharijites movement, a variant form of Islam practiced by descendants of a sect that seceded from the principal Muslim body after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632. Ibadies, however, deney this notion considering themselves ougrowthing from the famous follower (tabe'e) Jabir bin Zaid. Ibadies reject primogeniture succession of the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad, and assert that leadership of Islam, the caliphate, should be designated by an imam elected by the community from candidates who possess spiritual and personal qualities. Ibadhi leadership is vested in an imam, who is regarded as the sole legitimate leader and combines religious and political authority. The imam is elected by a council of prominent laymen or shaykhs. Adherence to Ibadism accounts in part for Oman's historical isolation. Ibadis were not inclined to integrate with their neighbours, as the majority of Sunni Muslims regard Ibadism as a heretical form of Islam.

Definition: Ibadiyah, or Abadiyah, is a moderate sect in Islam founded in the early 8th century in Oman by the scholar Jabir ibn Zayd al-Azid (d. 711), who was exiled to Oman by the governor of Basra in present-day south Iraq.
Ibadiyah Islam is a milder form of Khariji Islam, accepting coexistence with other Islamic sects and non-Muslims to a degree. Ibadiyahs originally believed in electing their imam and, in a characteristic familiar to any modern-day Jeffersonian, never abide tyranny. Paradoxically, the Ibadi ruler is invested with absolute authority over his followers, though he can be deposed if he does not follow the law.
Ibadiyah Islam flourished under the leadership of Aby Ubaydah Muslim ibn Abi Karimah, who trained missionaries and sent them across the Arab world as far as the Maghreb in North Africa and throughout Oman in hopoes of establishing a pan-Islamic Ibadi community. The movement took hold only in Oman, where it persists to this day.


The early Imamate in Oman arose out of a vision to create the true and ideal Muslim state. The first Ibadhi Imam, Julanda bin Mas'ud, was elected in 751 AD but he died in battle and it was not until 801 AD after a period of turmoil that Warith bin Kaab was elected. There then followed a period of peace, stability and prosperity lasting more than three hundred years.